Israel & Palestine Explained

Origins & the Post-1948 Period

The wider Israeli–Palestinian conflict traces back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with competing nationalist movements: Zionism (Jewish nationalism) and Palestinian Arab nationalism. After World War I, Britain took control of Palestine under “The Mandate for Palestine,” created by the League of Nations after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, and Jewish immigration increased. Tensions over land, identity, and political claims built up over decades.

In 1947–1948, the United Nations proposed a partition plan dividing the British Mandate of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Jewish leaders accepted the UN plan, but most Arab leaders and the Palestinian Arab community rejected it, arguing that it unfairly divided land where Arabs formed the majority of the population. 

On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel. Within hours, neighboring Arab states such as Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq invaded the newly declared country, beginning the Arab–Israeli War of 1948, also known as Israel’s War of Independence or the Nakba (“catastrophe”) in Palestinian memory.

This resulted in 4 things: 

• Israel survived and expanded its territory beyond the UN partition borders, gaining control of much of what had been designated for Palestine.
• Around 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes, creating one of the world’s longest-standing refugee crises.
• The Gaza Strip came under Egyptian administration, while Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem.
• No Palestinian state was created. 

6 Day War (1967)

By the mid-1960s, tension between Israel and its Arab neighbors had reached a breaking point. The roots of the conflict lay in unresolved issues from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War: refugee displacement, border disputes, and the absence of a lasting peace agreement. Regional rivalries, Cold War alignments, and growing Palestinian militancy also fueled instability.

The main events that led to the war:

• Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered UN peacekeepers to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula, where they had been stationed since 1957 to maintain peace after the Suez Crisis.
• Egypt massed troops along Israel’s southern border and signed a mutual defense pact with Jordan, signaling the formation of a unified Arab front.
• Nasser closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Israel considered this an act of war because it blocked access to the Red Sea and vital trade routes.
• Border skirmishes between Israel and Syria intensified, particularly over water rights in the Jordan River valley.
• Palestinian guerrilla groups, including the newly formed Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), began cross-border raids from bases in Syria and Jordan.

On June 6, 1967, Israel launched a preemptive strike targeting Egyptian airfields. Within hours, Israel destroyed most of Egypt’s air force on the ground, giving it overwhelming air superiority.

Egypt

Israel’s armored divisions swept across the Sinai Peninsula, overwhelming Egyptian defenses. Within days, Israeli troops reached the Suez Canal. Simultaneously, they seized the Gaza Strip, which was administered by Egypt. Thousands of Palestinians were displaced once again, and Gaza came under Israeli military occupation for the first time.

Jordan

Jordan entered the war under pressure from Egypt and false reports that Israeli forces were suffering losses. Israel responded with heavy shelling of East Jerusalem and rapid advances across the West Bank. Within three days, Israeli forces had taken control of the Old City of Jerusalem.

Syria

The final portion of the war took place on the Golan Heights, a strategic plateau from which Syrian artillery had long targeted northern Israel. After intense fighting and steep losses in mountainous terrain, Israel captured the Golan by June 10, the sixth and final day of the war.

Ceasefire

The United Nations brokered a ceasefire on June 10, 1967, ending the war after just 132 hours of fighting. Israel’s victory was overwhelming: it had defeated three Arab armies and captured territories three times its previous size, including Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.

However, the war’s military triumph came with profound political and humanitarian consequences:

• Territorial Control: Israel’s new control over Gaza and the West Bank placed more than a million Palestinians under occupation. This dramatically altered Israel’s demographics and set the stage for decades of conflict over sovereignty, settlements, and self-determination, which led to the Israel-Hamas War.
• Refugee Crisis: The war displaced another 250,000–300,000 Palestinians, many of whom were already refugees from 1948. Gaza’s population swelled further, intensifying overcrowding and poverty.
• Arab Political Shock: The rapid defeat humiliated Arab governments, especially Egypt and Jordan. It exposed the weakness of the Arab military alliance and prompted years of political upheaval and realignment.

Impact on Gaza

For Gaza, the war’s outcome was transformative. Overnight, the territory shifted from Egyptian control to Israeli military occupation. Israeli administrators imposed strict controls over movement, trade, and political expression. Refugee camps that had existed since 1948 became semi-permanent urban districts. While some Gazans found employment in Israel during the early occupation years, the region remained deeply impoverished. Over time, resentment and resistance grew. The occupation led to militant organizations, such as Fatah and later Hamas.

Every subsequent event, from the Yom Kippur War (1973), the First Intifada (1987), and the Israel-Hamas War (2023), can all be tied directly to this conflict.

Treatment of Palestinians

1967-1987

After the war, Israel established a military administration to govern Gaza. Civil institutions were dismantled or placed under Israeli oversight, and all movement in and out of the territory required Israeli permission. Additionally, the territory’s economy became structurally dependent on Israel. The infrastructure, trade routes, and utilities (such as electricity and water) were all tied/controlled by Israeli systems.

During this period, Israel also began establishing settlements in and around Gaza. Though small in number compared to the West Bank, these settlements took up valuable agricultural land and were protected by the Israeli military, creating daily friction with Palestinian residents.

1987-2005

Years of frustration erupted into mass protests in December 1987, after an Israeli military truck killed four Palestinian workers in Gaza. Called the First Intifada, it spread rapidly, involving grassroots uprising involving strikes, boycotts, and stone-throwing youths confronting Israeli troops.

Israel’s response:

• Mass arrests: Tens of thousands of Palestinians were detained, often without trial, under “administrative detention.”
• Curfews: Entire neighborhoods were locked down for weeks.
• “Breaking bones” policy: Controversially, some Israeli commanders authorized beatings of detainees to deter protestors, a practice condemned internationally.
• Economic retaliation: Work permits were suspended, and goods movement was halted, crippling Gaza’s economy.

This led to the Oslo Accords, which ended the First Intifada. However, because peace talks broke down and the then Prime Minister Ariel Sharon visited the Al-Aqsa Mosque, it all ignited the Second Intifada. 

In 2005, Israel carried out a “disengagement plan,” unilaterally withdrawing all troops and settlers from Gaza. The move was presented as a step toward peace, but Israel maintained control over Gaza’s airspace, territorial waters, and border crossings, except for the Rafah crossing with Egypt, which was also heavily monitored.

Legally and economically, Gaza remained under what human rights groups described as “remote occupation.”

Oslo Accords
The Oslo Accords were a pair of agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed in the 1990s. They marked the first direct, face-to-face negotiations between the two sides and were intended to lay the foundation for lasting peace, including the eventual creation of a Palestinian state alongside Israel.

There were two main agreements:

Oslo I Accord – signed in Washington, D.C., in 1993.

Oslo II Accord – signed in Taba, Egypt, in 1995.

Oslo 1

Key Provisions

Mutual Recognition:

• Israel officially recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people.
• The PLO recognized Israel’s right to exist in peace and security and renounced violence and terrorism.

Creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA):

• A semi-autonomous governing body was established to administer parts of the West Bank and Gaza.
• The PA would handle civil affairs like health, education, policing, and local government.

Phased Withdrawal:

• Israel agreed to withdraw its forces from Gaza and the West Bank town of Jericho first, with further pullbacks to follow.

The idea was that this gradual process would build trust and make peace politically possible on both sides.

Oslo 2

The second agreement expanded Palestinian self-rule to other parts of the West Bank and laid out a detailed map of control.

Territory

The West Bank was divided into three administrative zones:

• Area A (about 18%): Full Palestinian control
  • Israel retained the right to enter for specific security operations, but daily governance and policing were handled by the PA.
• Area B (about 22%): Palestinian civil control but Israeli security oversight
  • Palestinians managed municipal services, education, and civil matters, but Israel controlled people’s movement and could conduct military operations.
• Area C (about 60%): Full Israeli control
  • Palestinians were effectively prohibited from building or developing land in Area C without Israeli permits, which were rarely granted.

Elections and Civil Affairs

• Regular elections were mandated for municipal and legislative bodies.
• The PA gained authority to manage health, education, social services, taxation, and infrastructure in Areas A and B.
• The PA also assumed responsibility for civil law and courts, though serious criminal cases often involved coordination with Israel.
• Israel retained control over imports, exports, and customs, reinforcing Gaza and the West Bank’s economic dependence.

This structure was meant to be temporary, lasting until final-status talks concluded. Instead, it became semi-permanent and contributed to the events leading to Hamas’s rise to power.

Hamas’s Rise to Power

Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya, which means “Islamic Resistance Movement”) was founded in 1987, during the First Intifada, as an offshoot of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. During the First Intifada, Hamas carried out attacks against Israeli military targets and gradually escalated to civilian attacks, including suicide bombings in the 1990s. Additionally, to gain public support, Hamas began providing healthcare services, education, and relief for poor and displaced families. They also began receiving aid from wealthy families, international organizations, donors linked to the Muslim Brotherhood, and from Islamic charities under the guise of humanitarian aid. 

Additionally, Hamas capitalized on Palestinian dissatisfaction with the Oslo Accords, which many saw as granting limited autonomy while leaving occupation, settlements, and border restrictions in place. Israel and much of the international community classified Hamas as a terrorist organization, limiting its political legitimacy in official negotiations. 

The 2006 Election and Hamas Takeover

Hamas’s first major political success came in the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections, held under the framework of the PA. They won 74 out of 132 seats, defeating Fatah, the dominant Palestinian faction for decades.

This led to the U.S., EU, and Israel imposing economic sanctions and withholding aid from the Hamas-led government, demanding recognition of Israel, renunciation of violence, and adherence to prior agreements, which Hamas refused.

Elections were scheduled to be held in 2009, but were postponed because of the Fatah–Hamas conflict. The conflict started because President Mahmoud Abbas, who was only recognized as president in the West Bank and not in Gaza, signed a decree in 2007 abolishing the constituency seats with all seats to be elected from a national list, and prohibited parties that did not acknowledge the Palestine Liberation Organization’s right to represent the Palestinian people from contesting the election.

Within a few weeks, on June 14, 2007, Hamas took full control of Gaza, expelling Fatah officials and security personnel.

Within days, Israel and Egypt tightened the blockade around Gaza. 

• Imports: Strictly limited to “humanitarian necessities.” 
• Exports: Almost completely banned for years, destroying the manufacturing and farming sectors.
• Fuel and electricity: Heavily restricted; blackouts became a daily reality.
• Fishing zones: Shrunk repeatedly, sometimes to just 3 nautical miles from shore.

The blockade turned Gaza into an economic dead zone. Unemployment rose above 50%, and over 80% of residents came to rely on UNRWA aid. The World Bank described Gaza’s economy as in a state of “de-development” (reversing normal growth and industrialization).

Gaza War Ceasefire

We already covered many aspects of the Gaza War, so we will go into the details of the ceasefire and its implications. On September 29, 2025, United States President Donald Trump announced a new ceasefire agreement between Israel and Hamas in a press conference at the White House alongside Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Trump also reiterated that the agreement would involve Arab countries and could lead to broader peace in the Middle East.

On October 3rd, Hamas announced that they would release all Israeli hostages, living and deceased, and expressed willingness to negotiate on Trump’s proposed plan, though it did not agree to give up their influence in Gaza. Despite the agreement, Israel continued its bombing up to October 5, killing 70 Palestinians. 

On October 4, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu ordered the armed forces to halt their offensive in Gaza City in response to Trump’s demands. It was also announced that the ceasefire agreement will take place in Cairo, Egypt. 

The ceasefire contains 3 phases:

Phase 1

Both sides will immediately halt all hostilities, with all military operations suspended. All Israeli hostages and Palestinian prisoners will be released and exchanged.

Phase 2

The second phase includes the destruction of Hamas’s offensive weaponry, such as tunnels and military infrastructure, to neutralize its capacity for further violence. It also offers amnesty to Hamas members who commit to peaceful coexistence. Lastly, a temporary international stabilization force, composed of U.S., Arab, and European personnel, would be deployed to oversee security and facilitate the training of a Palestinian police force. 

Phase 3 

A transitional administration, led by Palestinian technocrats and supervised by an international body, is planned to be established to help rebuild Gaza. Humanitarian aid is to be delivered without interference, and encourage Palestinians to remain in Gaza. 

Lastly, this plan brings up the 2-state solution, where Israel and Palestine will coexist peacefully. However, it is worth noting that although the US would take part to ensure Palestine’s existence, the plan does not mention recognizing Palestine as a nation. 

On 13 October 2025, the peace summit, also known as the Sharm El Sheikh summit, was hosted to implement the first phase of Trump’s plan. Before heading to Egypt, Trump gave a speech to the Israeli Knesset and guests, urging Israel to focus on peace and prosperity in the Middle East and calling on Israeli President Isaac Herzog to pardon Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for corruption. 

Although the ceasefire agreement was in place, both parties committed violations. 

On October 13, Hamas returned the remains of four deceased Israeli hostages instead of all living and deceased hostages on the same day, within 72 hours of the agreement. Hamas stated that it faced obstacles in recovering the bodies, as not all burial sites had been identified. A spokesperson for the Red Cross has said it would be a “massive challenge” to find the remains of all deceased hostages amongst the rubble and stated that there was a possibility some may never be found. 

On October 14, Israeli forces killed at least seven Palestinians, six in Gaza City, and one by a drone strike in Khan Yunis. The Israeli military said that the attacks targeted individuals who advanced beyond the ‘yellow line’ after ignoring warning shots. This clearly violated the agreement to halt all hostilities and military operations. Additionally, Israel warned that the Rafah border crossing may not be reopened and the amount of humanitarian aid allowed into the Gaza Strip would be reduced as a consequence of Hamas’s failure to return the remains of all deceased hostages. That restriction was later lifted after Hamas announced it would return several more bodies the next day. 

It should be worth noting that when Trump proposed the ceasefire, it was close to the announcement of the Nobel Peace Prize. He has commented several times on how he deserves to be awarded the prize because he “ended seven wars.” However, his decision to withdraw from international agreements, his proposed acquisition of Greenland, and his infringements on basic rights of immigrants in the US weaken his case. Additionally, because Trump recently came to power, it may be too early to judge if his agreements will actually lead to lasting peace.